Lecture 2. Physiology of synapses: Budova, classification and mechanisms of performance. Mediators, neurochemical bases of behavior.
In the end of the 19th century, two theories of organizing were introduced in parallel nervous system(NS). reticular theory I esteemed that the NS is a functional syncytium: neurons behind additional adrots, similar to the capillaries of the circulatory system. good luck the classic theory of Waldeyer(1981 p) NS is composed of surroundings, separated by membranes, neurons. About the interaction of neurons, Sherrington in 1987, having launched the manifestation of a special membrane illumination - synapse... With the help of an electronic microscope, the appearance of synapses was unashamedly confirmed. However, the clerical theory of Budovi NS became a world-wide knowledge, for the irony of science in 1959 Fershpan and Potter created cancer-like synapses with long-distance contacts in NS (electrical synapse).
synapse- the whole membrane of the establishment of two (or more) cells, in which the transfer of information (information) from one cell to the other is shown.
The classification of synapses is advancing:
1) for the mechanism of transmission of energy (and for budova):
хімічні;
Electric (efapsi);
Zmіshanі.
2) according to the neurotransmitter's video:
Adrenergic - neurotransmitter norepinephrine;
Holinergic - neurotransmitter acetylcholine;
Dopaminergic - neurotransmitter dopamine;
Serotoninergic - neurotransmitter serotonin;
GABA-ergic - neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
3) behind the inflow:
zbudzhuyuchi;
Galmіvni.
4) for the month of roasting:
Nervous-myazov;
Neuro-neuronal:
a) axo-somatic;
b) axo-axonal;
c) axo-dendric;
d) dendrosomatic.
Three types of synapses are visible: chemical, electrical and changes(Yakiy on the basis of the power of chemical and electric synapses).
Regardless of the type, synapses can be seen in the background of the budovi: a nerve sprout at the end of the expansion ( synaptic plaque, Sat); Kintseva membrane SB is named presynaptic membrane(Presm); the membrane is specialized; other cells are known as the postsynaptic membrane (PostSM); between membranes the synapse is located synaptic gap(SS, Fig. 1, 2).
Small. 1. Scheme of the budovi chemical synapse
electric synapses(Efapsi, EU) New Years in the National Assembly are not only cancer-like, ale and molluscs, arthropods, ssavts. The EU may have a number of unique powers. Stink vuzka synaptic width (close to 2-4 nm), which can be transmitted electrochemically (like on a nerve fiber for a rakhunok EPC) with a high degree of sophistication and in both directions: Yak from the membrane to the PostSM, so from the PostSM to the press. Between clients and strong contacts (connexus or connexions), two connections are established with connectivities. A number of subunits of cutaneous connectivity form presm and postSM channels, through which cells can be exchanged with low molecular weight words of molecular weight 1000-2000 Daltons. The connexon robot can be regulated by Ca 2+ ions (Fig. 2).
Small. 2. Diagram of electrical synapse
The EU May more specialization in some cases with chemical synapses and make sure you have a high speed of broadcasts... However, apparently, it cannot be used for a more subtle analysis (regulation) of the information transmitted.
Hіmіchnі synapses dominate in the National Assembly... History of the Vivchennya to reclaim from the robot of Claude Bernard, who in 1850 published the article "Doslіgennya about curare". The axis of wines wrote: "Kurare is a strong otrut, who is ready for deyakim nationalities (zdebіlshy people), who linger in the forests ... of the Amazon". I dal, “Kurare is similar to a snake in that kind, which can be easily introduced into the herbal tract of a people or a creature, at that hour, as a part of it can be brought to death. ... through the splinter of the mitts of the creatures, they kick, as the stench has become tired. Then there is a sense of dichotomy and sensibility and life to know, and why creatures see a cry and do not appear as any sign of pain. " If Bernard did not want to think about the chemical transmission of the nerve impulse, his classic thoughts from the curare allowed the whole idea to arise. Ponad pivstolittya passed, since J. Langli stood up (1906), but the paralysis of the curare was tied with a special part of the ointment, which he called the receptive substance. Forward, the introduction about the transfer of excitation from the nerve to the effector organs behind the help of chemistry speech was written by T. Eliot (1904).
However, the hypothesis of a chemical synapse only from the robot G. Dale and O. Lev was solidified. Dale in 1914 established that the parasympathetic nerve was destroyed by acetylcholine. In 1921, in 1921, acetylcholine is seen from the nerve termination of the bloating nerve, and in 1926, in the form of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme called acetylcholine.
Destruction in the chemical synapse is passed on for help mediator... The whole process includes a number of stages. It is easy to see the specificity on the butt of the acetylcholine synapse, which is widespread in the central nervous system, autonomic and peripheral nervous systems (Fig. 3).
Small. 3. Scheme of the function of the chemical synapse
1. The mediator acetylcholine (ACh) is synthesized in the synaptic plaque from acetyl-CoA (acetyl-coenzyme A is established in mitochondria) and choline (synthesized by the liver) after the additional acetylcholintransferase, 1) (Fig.
2. Packages mediator in synaptic vesicles ( Castillo, Katz; 1955 rock). The amount of mediator in one vesicle becomes a few thousand molecules ( mediator quantum). A part of the vesicles is roasted on the press and is ready before the mediator is vivified (Fig. 3, 2).
3. Vivilnyaєsya medіator by way exocytosis in case of damaged press. An important role in the development of membranes and the quantum vivial mediator of the input strum Ca 2+ (Fig. 3, 3).
4. vivilnilisya mediator call with a specific receptor protein PostSM (Fig. 3, 4).
5. As a result of the interaction of the mediator and receptor change the performance PostSM: when Na + channels are displayed, it is displayed depolarization; output K + or Cl - channels to produce up to hyperpolarization(Fig. 3, 5).
6 ... Following the depolarization, biochemical processes are launched in the postsynaptic cytoplasm (Fig. 3, 6).
7. The receptor is triggered from the mediator: AX is triggered by acetylcholinesterase (AXE, Fig. 3. 7).
ear of form
Brother, I respect you, scho mediator in normal interaction with a specific receptor with singing power and triviality... Why curare - otrut? Miscem dii kurare yakraz є AX synapse. Curare mitsnishe calls into the acetylcholine receptor and allows the interaction with the mediator (AX). Damage from the somatic nerves on the skeletal muscle, including from the phrenic nerve to the main dichal muscle (diaphragm) is transmitted for the auxiliary AX, to that curare wickle relaxation (relaxation) death is now).
Essentially the main special features of transmission of excitement in the chemical synapse.
1. Damage is transferred to the aid of a chemist mediator - a mediator.
2. Damage is transmitted in one direction: from press to PostSM.
3. At the cheeky synapse to see team clock in the conducted zabudzhennya, to that the synapse is low labileness.
4. A cheeky synapse lacks sensitivity to the day not only of mediators, but of the most biologically active speeches, like and withering away.
5. The chemical synapse undergoes the transformation of the drug: the electrochemical nature of the stimulation into the biochemical process of the exocytosis of synaptic vesicles and the linkage of the mediator with a specific receptor. The change of the PostSM (also an electrochemical process), a kind of triple biochemical reactions in the post-synaptic cytoplasm, is observed.
In principle, such a multistage transmission is responsible for the mother of biological significance. To brutalize respect, on the skin stage you can regulate the process of transmission. Unimportant to the number of mediators (more than a dozen trochas), in a chic synapse є think for a wide range in the decision to come to the synapse of nervous awakening. The combination of the peculiarities of chemical synapses will explain the individual biochemical development of nervous and mental processes.
Now we are involved in two important processes that flow through the postsynaptic space. It meant that as a result of the interaction of AX with the receptor on the PostSM, both depolarization and hyperpolarization can develop. Where can I lie down, why would a mediator be awake or galmy? The result of the interaction of the mediator and the receptor by the power of the receptor cell(one more power is important chemical synapse - PostSM is active until it is damaged). In the principle of a chemical synapse - a dynamically set up, change a receptor, a clytin, a reception, you can pour on a yogo give me a share... As far as the power of the receptor is, the interaction with the mediator of the Na + channel is the vision of one quantum of the mediator on the PostSM to develop local potential(For the nerve-muscular synapse, I call it the miniature potential of the endov plate - MPCP).
If there is a Vinnikє PD? Damage to the PostSM (abnormal postsynaptic potential - EPSP) is the result of summation of local potentials. You can see two types of summation processes... at last vision of the mediator's decile quanta in one and the same synapse(Water and stone sharpening) timea i summation... yaksho quanti media are seen one hour in small synapses(On the membrane of a neuron there may be a thousand thousand) vastness of sumacia... The repolarization of the PostSM membrane is seen every now and then, and when he sees the quanta of the PostSM mediator, he is in the exaltation station for a day (this is the name of synaptic potentiation, Fig. 4). It is possible, in such a rank, to see the synapse (seeing the quanta of the mediator in the singing synapses can "fetch" the membrane before the viral interaction with the mediator).
When K + or Cl - channels are detected on the PostSM, the galvic potential is found in the postsynaptic potential (TPSP, Fig. 4).
Small. 4. Potential of the postsynaptic membrane
Naturally, in the development of TPSP, further expansion can be achieved. The largest option for the process of revitalization is presynaptic galvanizing. Even if a galmic synapse is established on the membrane of a synaptic plaque, then as a result of hyperpolarization, exocytosis of synaptic vesicles can be blocked.
Another important process is the development of biochemical reactions in the postsynaptic cytoplasm. The change of the PostSM activity is so called second messengers (middlemen): CAMP, cGMP, Ca 2+ -delayed protein kinase, which, in their turn, activate the protein kinase by way of phosphorylation. Cytochemical reactions can "descend" into the cytoplasm right up to the nucleus of the neuron, regulating the processes of protein synthesis. In such a rank, the nerves of the cell can be attributed to the novelty, but it was not only the decisions of those who were more likely to be disturbed (in the sense of the VPSP or TPSP, to carry out, or not to pass the distance), but to change the number of receptors, but to change the number of receptors, but Also, the power of the chemical synapse is also important: the establishment of the biochemical processes of the postsynaptic cytoplasm of the cytoplasm of the cell prepares (starts) to the potential interactions.
Nervous systems have functional synapses, which are mediators and receptors. The name of a synapse is called a mediator, more precisely the name of a receptor to a specific mediator. To that, the classification of the main mediators and receptors of the nervous system is discernible (also marvel at the material distributed on lectures !!).
It was also implied that the effect of the interaction of the mediator and the receptor was initiated by the powers of the receptor. To that, mediators, behind the wine of g-aminobutyric acid, can show the functions of both healthy and galvanized mediators. According to the chemical structure, they see the advancing groups of mediators.
acetylcholine, Widely widening in the central nervous system, є a mediator in the cholinergic synapses of the autonomic nervous system, as well as in the somatic nerve-muscle synapses (Fig. 5).
Small. 5. Acetylcholine molecule
vіdomі two types of cholinergic receptors: Nikotinov ( H-cholinoreceptor) І muscarinic ( M-cholinoreceptor). The name was rejected according to the words, so that a similar effect with acetylcholine is used in cych synapses: H-cholinomimeticsє nikotin, a M-cholinomimetics- fly agaric toxin Amanita muscaria ( muscarine). H-cholinoreceptor blocker (holinolytics)є d-tubocurarine(The main component is screw curare), and M-holinoliticsє belladonna toxin Atropa belladonna - atropin... Tsikavo, the power of the atropin has long been seen and for an hour, since the women were victorious at the atropin of Beladoni, they were victorious in the expansion of the healthy children (the eyes were dark and “beautiful”).
Some of the onset of the main mediators may be similar in chemical structures; monoamines... tse serotonin Abo 5-hydroxytripty (5-HT), a gravely important role in the mechanisms of admission (the hormone of joy). It is synthesized with an amino acid that is indispensable for humans - tryptophan (Fig. 6).
Small. 6. Molecule serotonin (5-hydroxy)
Three of the second mediators are synthesized from the essential amino acid phenylalanin, which is named catecholaminiv- tse dopamine (dopamine), norepinephrine (norepinephrine) and adrenaline (adrenaline, Fig. 7).
Small. 7. Catecholamini
mid amino acids to mediators gamma-aminobutyric acid(G-AMK or GABA is like a mediator), glucine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid.
Before mediators, carry a number of peptides... In 1931, Euler in the extracts of the brain and intestine was found to have a small tongue, which was a quicker smooth intestinal mucosa, an enlarged blood-bearing vessels. Tsey mediator buv in a clear view of visions from the hypothalamus and having given the name speeches R(In English. Powder - powder, stored in 11 amino acids). Nadal it was established that the speech of R is important in carrying out pain.
Peptide delta sleep having taken its name for the health of viclikati in the electroencephalogram of the higher amplitude rhythms (delta rhythms).
The brain synthesizes a number of white mediators of a narcotic (opiate) nature. tse pentapeptidi Met-enkefalin_vі Leu-enkefalin_v and also endorphini... Price of the most important blockers of large children and mediators of education (joy and satisfaction). In other words, our brain is a vіdminnoy factory endogenous drugs. Brain, navchit the brain of їkh viroblyati. "Yak?" - power the vi. Everything is simple - endogenous opiates are violated, if we accept satisfaction. Rob it all with satisfaction, sniff your endogenous factory to synthesize opiati! We are given the power of nature from the people - the greater the number of reactive neurons on the positive side is important.
Until the last ten years they were allowed to admit one more tsikaviy mediator - nitrogen oxide (NO). As a result, NO is not only a very important role in regulating the tone of blood vessels (nitroglycerin is given to you, and NO is expanded and coronary vessels are expanded), but it is synthesized in the neurons of the central nervous system.
In principle, the history of mediators has not yet been completed, but there are a number of speeches that take part in the regulation of nervous stimulation. It's just that the fact of synthesis in neurons has not been established, the stench has not appeared in the synaptic vesicles, and the receptor specific to them has not been known.
Federal Agency for Education
State Religious Institution
all the professional education
“Ryazan State University imeni S.А. Єsenina "
Institute of Psychology, Pedagogy and Social Robot
Control of the robot in the discipline "Neurophysiology and the basis of VND"
on the topic: “Understand about synapse, budova synapse.
Synapse transmission "
Viconav student 13L group
1 course OZO (3) A.I. Sharova
reversing:
professor of medical sciences
O.A. Bolova
Ryazan 2010
1. Introduction ............................................... ....................... 3
2. The structure and function of the synapse .......................................... .. . 6
3. Transfer of excitement to synapse ........................................ 8
4. Chimіchny synapse .............................................. ........... nine
5. Vision of the mediator .............................................. ..... ... ten
6. Cheerful mediators and their views ..................................... 12
7. Visnovok ............................................... ...................... 15
8. List of Literature .............................................. ........ .... 17
Entry.
Our tilo is one great year-old mechanism. Wines are stored from the majestic pieces of particles found, which are rostered in strict orderі skin they have a visitor function, і have their own unrepeatable power. The whole mechanism is quietly, it is stored in a cell, so that it can be combined with tissue and systems: everything as a whole is a single lance, a super-system of an organism. Lack of classy elements could not have been able to achieve the same goal, since in the body they couldn’t have explored the deterioration of the mechanism of regulation. The nervous system plays a special role in the regulation of the city. The whole collapsible robot of the nervous system - the regulation of the robots of the internal organs, the control of the rucks, whether it be simple and unaware of the ruff (for example, the dichotomy) or folding, the ruffs of the hands of a man are all, for the day, are based on the different mods of their own. All prices, by the way, are based on the transmission of a signal from one cell to the other. Moreover, the skin cell is a vison to its robot, and one has only one function. The versatility of the functions is taken care of by two factors: tim, as a clerk of oneself; The transition (transmission) of the stimulation from the nerve fiber to the innervated cell (nerve, myazov, secretory) is received through special education, I will call it synapse.
The structure and function of the synapse.
Skin large-scale organism, skin tissue, which can be stored in cells, requires mechanisms, and which prevents them from interfering with fashion. It is clear, yak welcome interneuronvzaєmodії. For the nerves of the class, the information will expand in the eyes potential for dei. The transfer of information from the axon of the terminals to the innervating organ, or the innermost nerve to the client, is sent through the microstructural education - synapse (Vid Greek. "Synapsis" -Z'єднання, sound). The understanding of synapse was introduced by an English physiologist C. Sherrington in 1897, for the purpose of the functional contact between neurons. Slid to mean, in the 60s of the last century I.M. Suchenov having cracked, but the posture of the microcircuitry, it is not possible to explain the ways of walking around the most nervous elementary process. The more foldable the nervous system is, and the greater the number of storage nerve brain elements, the more important is the age of synaptic contacts.
Synaptic contacts appear one way one. However, with all the development of synapses, there is a sense of the backbone of the authorities, their structures and functions. This collection describes the basic principle of its function.
synapse - is a foldable structural arrangement,
presynaptic membrane - Electrogen membrane in the terminal of the axon, establishing a synapse on the muscle cells (most often the end of the axon)
postsynaptic membrane - Electrogen membrane of the innervated cell, a synapse is installed on the cell (most often the membrane of the cell is the dendrite of the neuron)
synaptic cleft - the space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membrane, filled with ridino, yak behind the warehouse nagadє blood plasma
Synapses can be equipped with two neurons (Interneuron), Between neuron and muscle fiber (Nerve-myazovі), Between receptor devices and outgrowths of sensitive neurons (Receptor-neuron), Between neuron outgrowths and small cells ( salty).
Існ кілька clasifіkatsіy synapses.
1. For localization:
1) central synapse;
2) peripheral synapse.
Central synapses lie in the boundaries of the central nervous system, and can also be found in the ganglia of the autonomic nervous system.
central synapse- the whole contact between two nerve cells, moreover, the contacts are heterogeneous and in the presence of the one on which the first neuron establishes a synapse with another neuron, develop:
a) axosomatic, assertions by the axon of one neuron and the size of the neuron;
b) axo-dendritic, assertion by the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of the one;
c) axoaxonal (the axon of the first neuron will establish a synapse on the axon of another neuron);
d) dendrodental (the dendrite of the first neuron will fix the synapse to the dendrite of another neuron).
Razrіznyayut decіlka vidіv peripheral synapses:
a) myoneural (nerve-muscle), assertion by the axon of the motor neuron and the muscle cell;
b) nerve-epithelial, assertions by the axon of the neuron and the secretory cell.
2. Functional classification of synapses:
1) zbudzhuyuchі synapse;
2) galvanize the synapse.
synapse awake- synapse, in which the postsynaptic membrane will collapse; there is an awkward post-synaptic potential in niy vinyak and it has come to the synapse to expand further.
synapse galmіvny- A. Synapse, on the postsynaptic membrane of a vine, there is a galvanic postsynaptic potential, and it has come to the synapse that no distance extends to the synapse; B. anxious axo-axonal synapse, wiklicaє presynaptic galvanization.
3. For the mechanism of transmission of excitation in synapses:
1) хімічні;
2) electrical;
3) change
particularity cheery synapses polyagaє in the fact that the transfer of awakening to come to the aid of a special group of cheeky speeches - mediators Become more specialized, less electrical synapse.
Razrіznyayut decіlka vidіv cheery synapses, In the presence of the nature of the mediator:
a) holinergic.
b) adrenergic.
c) dopaminergic. They see the transmission of an education for an additional dopamine;
d) gastaminergic. They see the transfer of education for the help of the history;
e) GABAergic. They see the transmission of gamma-aminobutyric acid, that is, the process of galvanizing develops.
synapse adrenergic - synapse, mediator in yaku є norepinephrine. The new one sees the transfer of three catecholamines for help; develop a1-, b1-, i b2 - adrenergic synapse. The stench makes the neuroorgan synapse of the sympathetic nervous system and the synapse of the central nervous system. Destruction of a- adrenoreactant synapses of wiklikє zvuzhennya of sudin, fasting of the uterus; b1 - adrenergic synapses - robotic heart beating; b2 - adrenergic - enlarged bronchial tubes.
cholinergic synapse - acetylcholine mediator in new. Stink at the synapses of n-cholinergic and m-cholinergic.
In m-cholinergic synapse postsynaptic membrane sensitive to muscarin. The synapse is a neuroorgan synapse of the parasympathetic system and the synapse of the central nervous system.
In n-cholinergic the synapse postsynaptic membrane is sensitive to nicotine. A whole kind of synapses set up the nervous system synapses of the somatic nervous system, ganglion synapses, sympathetic and parasympathetic synapses of the nervous system, synapses of the central nervous system.
synapse electrical- in a new way, before the post-synaptic membrane, it is transmitted by an electric path, so that an efaptic transmission is generated - the potential for reaching the presynaptic end and the distance to expand through the channels of the membrane, post-synaptic In an electrical synapse, the mediator does not wiggle, the synaptic gap is small (2 - 4 nm) and in some small channels, 1 - 2 nm wide, along which they collapse and small molecules. Cepriaє low support of the postsynaptic membrane. The whole type of synapses grows significantly faster, there is less chemistry and more rapid transmission of excitement from them, a high hope, the possibility of two-way training.
Synapses may find a number of physiological authorities :
1) valve lack of power of synapses, T. E. Zdatn_st transfer of excitation only in one straight line from the presynaptic membrane to the postsynaptic;
2) the power of synaptic coverage, We are not connected with that, so the speed of transmissions will decrease;
3) power of potentiation(Cutaneous onset impulse will be carried out with a lesser postsynaptic occlusion). It is tied with this, that on the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes there is a mediator from the conduction before the front pulse;
4) low lability of the synapse(100-150 pulses per second).
Transmission to synapse.
The mechanism of transmission through the synapse has become unintelligible for an hour, as it is obvious that the transmission of signals in the synaptic region is rapidly transformed into the process of carrying out the potential along the axon. However, on the cob of the XX century, a hypothesis has been formed that the synaptic transmission is good or electric abo cheeky way. The electrical theory of synaptic transmission in the central nervous system of Malia is known up to the ear of the 50s, however, it has significantly created its position because of the fact that it is a chemical synapse of bouv demonstrations in a row peripheral synapses. So for nothing, A.V. Kibyakov, Having provided information on the nerve ganglion, as well as testing microelectrode technology for the internal clinical reconstruction of the synaptic potentials of the CNS neurons, allowed the formation of cells about the chemical nature of the transmission from the interneurons to the brain.
Microelektrodnye doslijennya the rest of the rock showed that in the singing interneuronal synapses there is an electrical transmission mechanism. In Danish hour it became obvious that є synapses, both with the chemical transmission mechanism, and also with the electric one. Moreover, in some synaptic structures, they simultaneously function and electrical and chemical transmission mechanisms - this is so called change synapses.
Also, electrical synapses are characteristic of the nervous system and large primitive creatures (the nervous diffusion system of the intestinal tract, synapses to cancer and many chrobacters, synapses of the nervous system and ribs) For all people who are overwhelmed, in and out of the way, impulses are transmitted for help depolarizing a kind of electric struma, which is generated in the presynaptic element. I wish it would be the same electrical synapses You can transfer impulses in one, or in two straight lines. Also, among the lower creatures, contact mіzh presynapticі postsynaptic the element of staying behind the aid of all one synapse - monosynaptic form of the link, prote in the process of phylogenesis, go to polyynaptic form of a link, Tobto, if there is any indication of the contact, it will help you to get a larger number of synapses.
However, in the days of robots, I would like to report on synapses with a chemical transmission mechanism, as they store a larger part of the synaptic apparatus of the central nervous system of other creatures and people. With such a rank, cheeky synapses, in my sight, especially tsikavi, so that the stench will get away with even more foldable interconnection klin, and also tied with pathological processes i change your power for a meal of lykarsky zasob_v.
synapse(Grets. Synapsis zitknennya, z'udnannya) - a special zone for contact between the sprouts of the nerve cells and the wakeful and non-excitable cells, which will prevent the transmission of the information signal. Morphologically, the synapse of apparatuses with contacting membranes is two cells. The membrane, which is located in the outgrowths of nerve cells, is called presynaptic, the membrane of the cell, before which a signal is transmitted, is called postsynaptic. According to the attachment of the postsynaptic membrane to the synapse, it is connected to neurosecretory, neuromuscular and interneuronal. The term "synapse" was introduced in 1897 by the English physiologist Charles Sherrington.
A synapse is a special structure that will prevent the transmission of a nerve impulse from a nerve fiber to either a nerve cell or a nerve fiber, as well as from a receptor cell on a nerve fiber (the area of a nerve cell is one of one and one that is a nerve cell). To illuminate the synapse, you need 2 cells.
synapse structure
The typical synapse is axo-dendritic and chemical. Such a synapse consists of two parts: presynaptic, clavate extensions of the axon endings of the transmission cell and postsynaptic, represented by contact with the dilyanka cytolemma of the spriymal cellini (in given vypadku- dendrite dilyanka). The synapse is the space where the membrane contacts the cytin, until the nerves reach the end.
Transmission of impulses to come along a cheeky way for the help of mediators or an electric way for an additional walk of the ions from one clinic to the house. Between parts, it is synaptic, the land of which strengthens the contacts. The part of the axolemma is clavate extension, lying down to the synaptic cleft to be called presynaptic membrane... Dilyanka cytolemmy sprymak klitini, which will intertwine the synaptic schilina from the protylezhny side, be called postsynaptic membrane, In the chemical synapses of won’t relfna and revenge the numerical receptor. In synaptic extended vesicles, the so-called synaptic fluff, which reveals either a mediator (a speech mediator in a transmission), or an enzyme that is a mediator. On the postsynaptic and presynaptic membranes, there is a receptor before that mediator.
classification of synapses
It is related to the mechanism of transmission of the nervous impulse to the
- хімічні;
- electrical- klitini make friends with high contacts for the help of special connexons (skin connexons are stored in six subunits). Appearance between cell membranes in the electrical synapse - 3.5 nm (extra small cells - 20 nm); So, since there is little opirion of the postulate ridini (in this particular type), the impulses do not pass through the synapse. Electric synapses make it sound like a mess.
- change synapses: Presynaptic potential for opening the strum, which depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane of a typical chemical synapse, de- and the postsynaptic membrane do not adhere one to one. In such a rank, in cich synapses, chemical transmission serves as a necessary power mechanism. The most widening of the first type.
Chemical synapses can be classified according to their distribution and attachment to various structures:
- peripheral
- nerves
- neurosecretory (axo-vasal)
- receptor-neuronal
- central
- axo-dendritic - with dendrites, incl.
- axo-spines - with dendritic spines, virost on dendrites;
- axo-somatic - with the bodies of neurons;
- axo-axonal - between axons;
- dendro-dendritic - between dendrites;
Further information from the synapse mediator is added to
- aminergic, to take revenge on biogenic amin (for example, serotonin, dopamine;) o including adrenergic, to take adrenaline or norepinephrine;
- cholinergic, avenging acetylcholine;
- purinergic, how to take revenge on purinis;
- peptidergicheskie, which revenge peptides. At the same time, only one mediator is not expected to vibrate in the synapse. Name the main mediator at once with the other, playing the role of a modulator.
Behind the sign of dії:
- zbudzhuyuchi
- galm_vni.
As a result of the hopeful impulse, the membrane depolarization appears, as it is possible to reduce the potential of the action in the singing minds.) Call them galmic and glycinergic (mediator - glycin) and GABA-ergic synapses (mediator - gamma-aminobutyric acid).
In such a rank, galvanized synapses are of two types:
- synapse, in the presynaptic ends of which there is a mediator, hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic membrane and the determination of the galvanic postsynaptic potential;
- axo-axonal synapse, which will provide presynaptic galvanization.
Cholinergic synapse (s. Cholinergica) - synapse, mediator in yaku є acetylcholine. In some synapses, the presence of postsynaptic gapping is an electronic-shchilna zone, which is stored in the bricks. For її ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї Іyutіyut synapses asymmetric and symmetric. Seemingly, all glutamatergic synapses are asymmetric, and GABA-ergic synapses are symmetric. In vipads, since the postsynaptic membrane is in contact with a spike of synaptic extensions, multiple synapses are established. To special forms of synapses, spinal devices are introduced, in which synaptic extensions are in contact with short single or multiple types of postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite. Synaptic devices significantly increase the number of synaptic contacts on the neuron and, also, the number of information that can be processed. "Non-spine" synapses are called "sedentary". For example, sedentary є all GABA-ergic synapses.
Mechanism of function of chemical synapse When depolyarizatsії presinaptichnoї termіnalі vіdkrivayutsya potentsіal-chutlivі kaltsієvі Kanai іoni kaltsіyu belongs to the presynaptic termіnal i zapuskayut mehanіzm zlittya sinaptichnih puhirtsіv of membrane vnaslіdok chogo medіator vihodit in sinaptichnu schіlinu i z'єdnuєtsya of bіlkami receptors postsinaptichnoї membrane SSMSC dіlyatsya at metabotropic i іonotropnie ... The first linkage with the G-block and start a cascade of reactions of internal transmission to the signal, other links with the ionic channels, which appear when the neurotransmitter is triggered from them, and then produce up to the change of the membrane.
The mediator dіє stretching for more than a short hour, for which it is ruined by a specific enzyme. For example, at the cholinergic synapses, an enzyme that runs a mediator in the synaptic cleft is acetylcholinesterase. One hour a part of the mediator can move through the postsynaptic membrane (direct flooding) and into the vortex right through the presynaptic membrane (vortex flooding). In a number of vypadkіv mediator, it is also possible to adhere to the susceptible cells of neuroglia. Two mechanisms of vivilnenya are introduced: in the wickedness of the vesicles with the plasmalemma and so the titles "kiss-and-run" into vesicles. Another mechanism, imovirno, is faster than the first one, for additional synaptic transmission with a high amount of calcium ions in the synaptic plaque. An inheritance of this structure of the synapse є unilateral conduction of the nerve impulse.
This is the name of synaptic signaling - an hour required for the transmission of a nerve impulse. Її triviality - 0.5 ms. So the titles of "Dale's principle" (one neuron - one mediator) are pardoned. Abo, as only one vvazhayut, win clarifications: from one end of the clinic, you can see not one, but a few mediators, moreover, there are a lot of extras for a given client.
The area of contact between two neurons is called synapse.
Internal budov axodendritic synapse.a) electric synapses... Electric synapses in the nervous systems of satellites are developed rather quickly. The stench is confirmed by thin-line contacts (Nexus) with dendrites or soms of similar neurons, which are located behind the additional cytoplasmic channels with a diameter of 1.5 nm. The process of transmitting a signal is received without synaptic reception and without the participation of mediators.
With the help of electrical synapses, it is possible to expand the electrical potentials from one neuron to the other. Because of the tight synaptic contact, the modulation of the signal is not good. The head of the synapses is a one-hour boost of neurons, which is the same function. To serve as a butt neuron to the center of a large brain, when you breathe in for an hour, it generates impulses synchronously. In addition, the butt can serve as a neuron lancet, to control saccades, when the point of fixation will change from one object to another.
b) cheery synapses... Lots of synapses in the nervous system - chemistry. The function of such synapses is to be found in the development of mediators. The classic chemical synapse of representations by the presynaptic membrane, the synaptic cleft and the postsynaptic membrane. The presynaptic membrane is a part of the clavate extension of the neural end of the cell, which transmits a signal, and the postsynaptic membrane is a part of the cell, which will receive the signal.
The mediator invades the clavate enlargement for additional exocytosis, passes through the synaptic cleft and engages with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. From the post-synaptic membrane, the subsynaptic active zone is removed, in the course of the activation of receptors in the post-synaptic membrane, various biochemical processes occur.
In the club-shaped extended rosters, there are mediators of synaptic fluff, and there is also a large number of mitochondria and cisterns of smooth endoplasmic fissures. The stagnation of traditional methods of fixation in the presence of advanced clitin allows the growth of presynaptic impairments on the presynaptic membrane, so that the active zones and the synapse are surrounded, to which microtubules are sent to follow other pathways.
Axodendritic synapse. Zriz to the spinal cord preparation: the synapse between the cytsevic dendrite and the imovirno neuron.
The appearance of rounded synaptic chicks and postsynaptic depression is characteristic of abnormal synapses.
The dendrite spacing is drawn in a transverse straight line, it is easy to reduce the appearance of the absence of microtubules.
Besides, we can see the actions of neurofilment. Dilanka of the synapse of the discharge of protoplasmic astrocytomas.
Processes that occur in the nerve ends of two types. (A) Synaptic transmission of small molecules (for example, glutamate).
(1) The transport bulbs, to replace the membranous cells of the synaptic chickens, are directed through the microtubules to the plasmatic membrane of the clavate sweating.
At the same time, the transfer of molecules of enzymes and glutamate by means of transport will take place.
(2) Membrane bulbs move from the plasma membrane and form synaptic bulbs.
(3) Glutamate gets into synaptic fluff; the accumulation of the mediator is being reviewed.
(4) Puhirtsi, to avenge glutamate, go to the presynaptic membrane.
(5) As a result of depolarization, exocytosis of the mediator is observed in the partly rounded bulbs.
(6) The mediator expands diffusely in the area of the synaptic gap and activates specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
(7) The membranes of synaptic bulb are transported back into the cell by means of endocytosis.
(8) Add a small amount of glutamate to the cell for re-entry.
(B) Transmission of neuropeptides (for example, substance P), which can be transmitted instantly from synaptic transmission (for example, glutamate).
The spilny transmission of cychic speech occurs in the central nerve ends of the unipolar neurons, so that painful sensitivity is avoided.
(1) Synthesized in the Golgi complex (in the area of pericarion) bulbs and interspersed peptides (propeptide) are transported to a club-like extension by means of a fast transport.
(2) When it is consumed in the area of the clavate draining, the process of forming the molecule to the peptide is completed, and the bulb is transported to the plasma membrane.
(3) Depolarization of the membrane and transferring the bulbs to the small space by way of exocytosis.
(4) Immediately take a dose of glutamate.
1. Receptor activation... Molecules of mediators pass through the synaptic cleft and activate receptor proteins that are rocked in pairs on the postsynaptic membrane. Activation of receptors for triggering іonny processes, such as producing up to depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane (awake postsynaptic dіyu) or hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane (galvanic postsynaptic dіyu). The change in electrotonus is transmitted to the soma in the view of the widening of the electrotonic potential, which is damped in the world, for the change in the potential for calmness in the cob segment of the axon.
Інні processes of reporting are described in the okremіy statti on the siteі. When overwhelming post-synaptic potentials are involved, the cob segment of the axon is depolarized to the threshold level and the generation potential of the axon.
The most widening of the nervous mediator of the central nervous system is glutamate, and galmium is gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). In the peripheral nervous system, acetylcholine serves as a mediator for the ruddy neurons of the transversely dark muscles, and glutamate for sensitive neurons.
The sequence of processes occurring in glutamatergic synapses is shown on the bottom of the picture. When the glutamate is transferred to the spitly with the other peptides, the peptides become invisible in an extra-naptic way.
A large number of sensitive neurons, including glutamate, are seen and are peptides (one or more), which can be found in small neurons; however, the main function of cich peptides is modulation (adjustment or reduction) of the efficiency of synaptic transmission to glutamate.
In addition, neurotransmis- sion can be transformed into diffusional extranaptic transmission to a signal characteristic of monoaminergic neurons (neurons, which are capable of producing biogenic amino acids for the prevention of neurotransmission). I see two types of monoaminergic neurons. In some neurons, the synthesis of catecholamines (norepinephrine or dopamine) from the amino acid tyrosine occurs, and in others, serotonin and the amino acid tryptophan. For example, dopamine is found in the synaptic area, as well as from varicose axon growth, in which the synthesis of a neurotransmitter is also seen.
Dopamine penetrates into the midline of the central nervous system and until the moment of degradation of the normal activation of the specific receptor on the wall up to 100 microns. Monoaminergic neurons are present in the structures of the central nervous system; Disruption of the transmission of impulses by neurons can lead to sickness, the middle of seeing Parkinson's ailment, schizophrenia and depression.
Nitrogen oxide (a gas-like molecule) also takes part in diffusion neurotransmission in glutamatergic systems of neurons. Nadmirne injection of nitrogen oxide nadaє a cytotoxic dyu, especially in quiet dilyankas, the blood loss of which has been destroyed for artery thrombosis. Glutamate is also a potentially cytotoxic neurotransmitter.
On the basis of diffuse neurotransmission, the traditional synaptic transmission of a signal through the transmission of stability is called "provincial".
v) summary... Multipolar neurons of the central nervous system are composed of catfish, dendrites and axons; the axon is set to the bicnie and the thermal head. In the catfish, the rosette is smooth and short, endoplasmic, hemispheres, Golgi complexes, neurofems and microtubules. Microtubules penetrate the neuron in all protrusions, take part in the process of anterograde transport of synaptic fluffs, mitochondria and flutes to induce membranes, and also to prevent retrograde transport of "marker" molecules of organ.
There are three types of chemical interneuronal interactions: synaptic (for example, glutamatergic), extranaptic (peptidergic) and diffuse (for example, monoaminergic, serotoninergic).
Chemical synapses are classified according to anatomical buds on axo-dendritic, axosomatic, axo-axonal and dendro-dendritic. Synapse of representations by pre- and postsynaptic membranes, synaptic cleavage and subsynaptic active zone.
Electric synapses will be able to instantly activate all groups, making an electric call between them for the rakhunok of split-shaped contacts (Nexus).
Diffuse neurotransmisia in the brain. The axons of glutamatergic (1) and dopaminergic (2) neurons establish synaptic contacts with the growth of a macular neuron (3) of a swarthy body.
Dopamine vivifies not only from the presynaptic area, but from the varicose axon draining, the cells diffusely expand into the small space and activate the dopamine receptor of the dendritic stool and the walls of the capillaries.
Rozgalmovuvannya. (A) Zapudzhuyu neuron 1 activates galvanic neuron 2, which is in its own cell a galvanic neuron 3.
(B) The appearance of another galvanic neuron (2b), a prototype is infused onto neuron 3, and there are some fragments of galvanic neuron 2b.
Spontaneously active neuron 3 generates signals in the heads of the galvanized water.
2. Likarski zasobi - "keys" and "locks"... The receptor can be removed with a lock, and the mediator - with a suitable key. In that case, if the process of the mediator's evolvement collapses due to some kind of ill-health, lykarskiy zasib You can play the role of a "spare key", which is similar to the mediator's function. Likarskiy is called an agonist. At the same hour, at every overwhelming product, the mediator can be "overwhelmed" by a receptor blocker - a "false key", which is connected to a "lock" -receptor, albeit with no wicked activation.
3. Galmuvannya and rozgalmovannya... The function of spontaneously active neurons is streamed under the influx of galvanic neurons (zazvychay, GABAergicheskikh). The activity of galvanic neurons, in their own power, can be injected with the ingibuvati with the same galvanic neurons, as a result of which the braking of the client-target is shown. The disinhibition process - the particularity of neuronal activity in the basal ganglia is important.
4. Рідкісні types of chemical synapses... There are two types of axoaxonal synapses. In both vipadas, a clavate sweating affirms a galvanic neuron. Synapses of the first type are established in the area of the cob segment of the axon and transmit forcefully into the input of the galvanic neuron. Synapses of another type are established between the clav-shaped inclinations of the galvanic neuron and the clav-shaped constrictions of the stimulating neurons, which can lead to the reduction of the vivification of mediators. The process is called presynaptic galmuvannya. On the whole, the traditional synapse will provide post-synaptic galmuvannya.
Dendritic-dendritic (D-D) synapses are established between the dendritic spines of the dendrites of the summonary spine neurons. Їх zavdannya is not a generation of a nervous impulse, but a change in the electrotonus of a clitini-target. In the last D-D-synapses, the synaptic bulbs grow only in one dendritic spines, and in the reciprocal D-D-synapses, in both. Zbudzhuyuchi D-D-synapses of images on the little one below. Halm D-D synapses are widely represented in the intermittent nuclei of the thalamus.
In addition, there are innumerable somato-dendritic and somato-somatic synapses.
Axoaxonal synapse of measles to the brain. The arrows indicate the direct conduction of the impulses.
(1) Presynaptic and (2) postsynaptic galvanization of the spinal neuron, right up to the brain. The arrows indicate directly the conduction of impulses (it is possible to galvanize the pumping of the neuron from the other galvanic injections).
Zbudzhuyu dendro-dendritic synapses. Images of dendrites of three neurons. Reciprocal synapse (right-handed). The arrows indicate the expansion of the electric power lines.
Navchalny video - budova synapse
Synapse is a structural and functional establishment, I will
chu zbudzhennya from the neuron to the cell innervated by it (nerve, glandular, mish-
woo). The synapse can be distributed on the next video:
1) according to the method of transmission - electrical, chemical;
2) by localization - central, peripheral;
3) for functional familiarity - zbudzhuyuchі, galmіvnі;
4) according to the structural and functional features of the receptors in the postsynaptic
membranes - cholinergic, adrenergic, serotonergic and.
2. Budova myoneural synapse
Myoneural synapse is stored from:
a) presynaptic membrane;
b) postsynaptic membrane;
c) synaptic cleavage.
Presynaptic membrane - ce Electrogen membrane presynaptic -
high termіnals (end of the nerve fiber). At the presynaptic terminals
to pretend and accumulate in bulbs (vesicles) mediatori (transmіteri)
acetylcholine, norepinephrine, histamine, serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric acid
that іnshі.
The postsynaptic membrane is the central part of the innervated cell membrane.
ki, in which the chemosensitivity of the canal will grow. Besides, on
postsynaptic membrane localized receptor before the
ru і enzymes, їх destructive, for example, cholinoreceptors and cholinesterase.
Synaptic cleavage - memorized by a microscopic age, located
There are pre- and postsynaptic membranes.
3. Mechanism of conducting stimulation through the myoneural synapse
Myoneural synapse of motor neuron axon appositions on the transverse dark
meat fiber. Damage through the myoneural synapse is transmitted for help
acetylcholine. Before the infusion of nerve impulses, the presynaptic membrane is depolar
- it is being formed. Acetylcholine sounds from the bulb and goes into the synaptic gap.
The mediator's sound is represented by portions - quanta. acetylcholine difunduє
through the synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic membrane. On the postsynaptic mem-
Brain mediator in conjunction with holinoreceptors. For a long time
penetration for ions of sodium and calium and wine
(PCP) abo the anxious postsynaptic potential (EPSP). On the mechanism of a circle
vikh struma in flux vinikє potential of action in the membrane of the target
nogo fiber, adjoined to the postsynaptic membrane.
Linkage of acetylcholine from cholinoceptor is not present. Mediator run up holі-
non-terase. The electrical stanchion of the postsynaptic membrane when restoring
go to bed.
4. physiological authorities synapses
Synapses may be advised by physiological authorities:
a) unilateral implementation of the power supply (valve power) - negotiated
the peculiarities of the budovi synapse;
b) synaptic closure - tied together, so the singing hour is needed for
carrying out the stimulation through the synapse;
c) potentiation (lulling) of the onset of nerve impulses -
to be aware of the fact that on the skin offensive impulse one sees more
d) low lability - amused by the peculiarities of communication and physical
chemical processes;
e) it is easier to diagnose galmuvannya і quick development is tired
nya - explain the low labileness.
f) desensitization - a decrease in the sensitivity of the cholinoceptor to acetylchol-
Spinal cord, especially yogo budovi. See the neurons. Functional visibility of the anterior and posterior corners of the spinal cord. Bella-Magendi law. Physiological meaning of the spinal cord. "Law" the reflex activity of the spinal cord.
V spinal cord to be found: 1. motoneurons(Efektornі, rukhovі nervesі
clitini, s 3%), 2. inserted neurons(Interneurons, industrial, їх 97%).
Motor neurons are divided into three types:
1) α - motoneurons, innervate skeletal muscles;
2) γ - motoneurons, innervate the proprioceptors of the mucous membranes;
3) neurons of the autonomic nervous system, axons of which nerve nerves
ni cells, rots in vegetative ganglia, and through them internal
organi, judge and zalozi.
2. Functional meaning of the anterior and posterior cortexes of the spinal cord
(Bella-Magendi Law)
Bella-Magendi's law: “All afferent nerves and impulses come into the
new brain through the back corners (sensitive), and all the existing nerve impulses
leave (enter) the spinal cord through the anterior coring (rukhovi) ".
3. Function of the spinal cord
The spinal cord of the vicon has two functions: 1) reflexive, 2) Providnikov.
For the reflex action of the spinal cord, a number of simple and
folding crazy reflexes. Simple reflex and two-neuron reflector
no arcs, folding - three or more neuronal reflex arcs.
The reflex activity of the spinal cord can be vivified on "spinal
them "- tvarin, in which the brain is harvested and the spinal cord is saved.
4. Nerves in the center of the spinal cord.
In the transverse krizhovoy spinal cord, there are: 1. urine outlet center
nya, 2. center of the act of defecation, 3. reflex center of state performance.
In the horns of the thoracic i transverse viddiliv the spinal cord is sutured:
1) spinal sudoriferous center, 2) spinalny center.
In the anterior horns of the spinal cord, the rіznih rіvnyakh centri dv-
hotel reflexes(Center Exter and proprioceptive reflexes).
5. Wire connections to the spinal cord
Development of such conductive pathways to the spinal cord: 1) vishіdnі(affe-
rent) і 2) decline(Eferent).
On the way out, tie the receptor to the body (proprio, tactile, more
wі) with small parts of the brain.
Descending to the spinal cord: 1) pіramіdny, 2) extrapyramidny... Pira-
Mіdna shlyakh - from neurons in the anterior central part of measles to the brain to
spinal cord, do not digest. Extrapyramidny way - you can also fix it as a neuro-
new anterior central development and end in the spinal cord. Tsey shlyakh bagato-
neuronal, vіn digest in: 1) pіdkіrkovy nuclei; 2) the brain;
3) the middle brain; 4) dovgastomuzku.
Regulation of the court tone. Miscev regulation (autoregulation). Nerve regulation of the tone of the nerves Humoral regulation of the court tone. Indicators of arterial vise in children.
There are two types of judgmental tone:
Basal (myogenic);
Neurogenic.
Basal tone.
If a vessel is denervated, it is possible to insert a dzherel of humoral infusions, it is possible to develop a basal tone of the sudin.
development:
a) electrogenic component- mummification of spontaneous electrical activity of myocytes of the vertebral column. Most automatic - in precapilary and arterioles;
b) non-electrogenic component (plastic)- obumovaniya rasptyaguvannyam meazovoy stinka through a vice on her blood.
Shown scho Automation of smooth-eyed cells will adapt to the pouring out of the flow. Growing up is also mechanical (fast-feeling) activity (so that a positive vortex ring is promoted: equal to the value of AT and vertebral tone).
Misce's humoral regulation.
1. Vasodilators:
a) nonspecific metabolites - uninterruptedly pretend in textiles, and in the moment of setting the stench, wait for the sound of the Sudin, and also wick their expansion (Metabolic regulation).
Before them are carried - CO2, carbonic acid, H +, lactic acid, acidification (accumulation of acidic products), reduction of the pressure of O2, an increase in the osmotic pressure of the accumulation of low molecular weight products.
b) BAS (when doing a video) - set up as special cells, which enter the ship's warehouse.
1. Vasodilating biologically active substances (in the microscopic form) -
acetylcholine, histamine, bradikinin, prostaglandin deyaki, prostacyclin, which is secreted by endothelium, may mediate its effect through nitrogen oxide.
2. Vesicoussic biologically active substances (in case of being seen in the video) - are established as special cells, which enter the warehouse of the vessel - catecholamines, serotonin, prostaglandins, endothelium 1-peptides, 21 seen by platelets during aggregation.
The role of biologically active substances in the distant regulation of the vascular tone.
The order of nerve inflows plays an important role in the regulation of the vertebral tone.
Hormones (vasopresin, adrenaline); parahormone (serotonin, bradykinin, angiotensin, histamine, opiate peptides), endorphin and enkephalin.
In the main, BAR may have a direct effect, as there is a large number of smooth muscle sudin and a specific receptor for BAS.
Some BARs to improve the effect of the tone of the jaw, and to change it.
Endothelial function of other blood vessels and their role in the regulation of hemodynamic processes, hemostasis, immunity:
1. Self-care structure (self-regulation of cell growth and renewal).
2. Osvita vasoactive speech, as well as activation and activation of BAR, which circulate in the blood.
3. Miscellaneous regulation of smooth muscle tone: synthesis and secretion of prostaglandins, prostacyclin, endothelin and NO.
4. Transmission of vasomotor signals from capillaries and arterioles to larger vessels (creative connection).
5. Pіdtrimka anticoagulant powers of the surface different types hemostasis, mirroring of the surface, immobility).
6. Realization of hypothetical (phagocytosis) and immune (connection of immune complexes) reactions.
7. Osvita vasoactive rivers, as well as activation and activation of BAR, which circulate in the blood.
8. Miscellaneous regulation of smooth muscle tone: synthesis and secretion of prostaglandins, prostacyclin, endothelin and NO.
9. Transmission of vasomotor signals from capillaries and arterioles to larger vessels (creative connection).
10. Podtrimka anticoagulant power of the surface (vision of speech, which transcends different types of hemostasis, protection of mirroring of the surface, and immobility).
11. Realization of hypothetical (phagocytosis) and immune (connection of immune complexes) reactions.
Neurogenic tone of delusional dyyalnistu court center(SDTs) in a small brain, at the bottom of the IV duckling (V.F. views with two views(Pressorny і depresornі).